Category Archives: Tudors and Reformation

Martin Luther

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Martin Luther was born 10 November 1483 of peasant stock, and lived among the untutored folk of the remote woods and mines around the East German town of Eisleben. His mother and father, Hans and Margaretta Luther, were both devout and prayerful, and yet superstitious and believing in spirits that inhabited the forests, winds and water.

Devils, witches and ill-tempered spirits roamed this world among the church spires and bell towers in towns where Luther learned his psalms and marched in religious processions.  Both parents were very strict with him, and Luther later told about how their whipping of him had drawn his blood as well as making him very fearful of his father.

Caught in a thunderstorm

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Huldreich Zwingli – a summary

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480 years ago, on 11 October 1531, the radical Protestant reformer, Huldreich Zwingli, was killed. Edward A Gosselin summarizes his life.

Huldreich Zwingli was born in 1484 in the eastern Swiss village of Wildhaus to a family of Alpine shepherds. Zwingli remained proud of his peasant origins throughout his life, and, from a young age, maintained an ardent patriotism and fondness for his fellow Swiss which only increased with his humanist education. In 1500, aged sixteen, Zwingli began his classical studies in Vienna where his circle of friends included other future reformers, some of whom would later become his opponents.

Zwingli returned to Switzerland in 1502 to the University of Basel where he continued his humanist studies. Here he also embarked on a serious study of the Bible under the tutelage of Thomas Wyttenbach of Biel. Wyttenbach impressed Zwingli with his criticisms of scholarly ‘trifling’, Church abuses and the papal doctrine of indulgences. Zwingli attributed to Wyttenbach his interest in becoming a village pastor in the town of Glarus, south-east of Zurich. He continued his humanist studies, and began to learn Greek so that he might better understand the New Testament and to study the Greek Fathers in addition to the Latin Church Fathers.

Zwingli and Erasmus

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Anne Boleyn – A Mother Remembered

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Elizabeth I lost her mother, Anne Boleyn, to the executioners block before her third birthday.  Despite this, the brief memory of her mother and loyalty to her maternal family remained powerful forces within Elizabeth.

When married to Elizabeth’s father, King Henry VIII, Anne (pictured) had become the victim of a cruel plot to oust her as queen.  Her enemies found easy success because Henry had tired of her sharp tongue and she had not provided him a male heir. Furthermore he had fallen for one of her maids; Jane Seymour.  Jane became his third wife following Anne’s death.

Anne was executed on 19 May 1536 on charges relating to treason, adultery and incest.  Little Elizabeth was immediately declared illegitimate and out of royal favour.

By the time Elizabeth was allowed back to court, it was Christmas 1536.  She found herself amidst courtiers who dare not mention her mother, or in fact, the very name of Boleyn.

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The Birth of Henry VIII

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520 years ago, the child who would one day reign as Henry VIII was born June 28, 1491 at Greenwich Palace, London to parents, Henry VII and Elizabeth of York.

The Tudor Dynasty into which Henry had been born was still in its infancy.  His father, Henry VII (pictured), had usurped the crown of England from Richard III at the battle of Bosworth in August 1485.  The six years that Henry VII had held the English throne had been turbulent, to say the least.  His marriage to Elizabeth had not entirely put an end to ‘The Wars of The Roses’ but the combination of her Yorkist lineage with that of his Lancastrian descent went some way to appease the English.  They may not have relished Henry VII but no-one could dislike the gentle, demure and utterly enchanting Queen.  She was peace-loving and able to maintain a respectful distance from her mother-in-law Margaret Beaufort, accepting this powerful influence over her husband.  The King clearly loved and respected his wife very much.  He took his marriage vows very seriously and unlike the majority of monarchs, both contemporary and previous, he practised monogamy.

Despite the hazardous process of childbirth, Elizabeth of York was safely delivered of Henry, just as she had been with his older siblings; Arthur in 1486 and Margaret in 1489.  King Henry VII could now relax safe in the knowledge he had an ‘heir and a spare’.  With each child, particularly the boys, his position on the throne could grow stronger.  Elizabeth would go on to have three more children after Henry but only Mary, born in 1496, would survive to adulthood.

The Christening of the Future King

The christening service for baby Henry was conducted by Richard Foxe, Bishop of Exeter.  It was conducted with Royal protocol in mind.  According to, ‘the Ryalle book’ this would have included a stage and canopy decorated in lavish fabric as well as the sounding of trumpets to mark the occasion.

Maybe it was because little Henry was only the ‘spare’ that few concerned themselves with great outpouring over Henry’s christening.   No poet or contemporary chronicler seems to have provided a written record.  Even Henry’s own grandmother, Margaret Beaufort, makes only a minor mention of his arrival in her calendar.

The Young Henry

As a toddler all that is known about Henry is that he was a confident and attractive child whose appearance soon leaned towards his Yorkist ancestry.  He was a stocky, red-haired infant unlike his fair, slender father and elder brother Arthur. The two boys experienced incredibly different and separate nurture too.

Arthur was being specifically educated for Kingship, away from his siblings.  Alternatively, at the beginning of his life, Henry was surrounded by the feminine influence of his mother and sisters.  More formal education was introduced when he reached six-years-old.  The accomplished poet, John Skelton became his main tutor.  The theological instruction of young Henry was considered very important.  He developed a deep interest in philosophy and theology and the issues that surrounded the subjects, relishing learned debates.  His learning in this field followed the fashionable trend towards Humanist thinking.

There seems little doubt that although loving parents, Henry VII and Queen Elizabeth never lost sight of the dynastic and future importance of their children.  Although debated, some historians believe that whilst Arthur underwent training for the throne, Henry was being prepared for a high profile role within the church.  King Henry VII’s dream, it appears, was to unite the crown and the church within their familial power.

This dream was shattered on April 2, 1502 when Prince Arthur died and the ten-year-old Henry became heir apparent.

Julie Wheeler
Read more in Henry VIII’s Wives In An Hour

Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon: A Joint Coronation

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On June 24, 1509 Henry, Prince of Wales, second son to the recently dead King Henry VII, gloried in a joint coronation with his wife of two weeks, Catherine of Aragon.

As they took the rule of England the country rejoiced and optimism flourished.  A new era was dawning.  A charming, handsome, young extrovert was replacing a tyrannical, paranoid old miser as King of England.  A Spanish princess was to fill a throne long since vacated by a previously beloved Queen.

The Joint Coronation

The previous day the couple had enjoyed a procession through the richly decorated streets of London, towards Westminster.  Catherine, despite her Spanish heritage, embraced English traditions for her part in the procedure.  She was carried in a litter, draped in white, as were the horses that clattered beside her, one of them ridden by her husband.  Catherine’s embroidered, satin dress was also white and her hair tumbled loose about her shoulders, delicately adorned with a coronet set with pearls. Henry’s attire was no less striking.  He wore red velvet, trimmed with ermine and glimmering with precious stones.

The coronation took place at Westminster Abbey.  Two thrones were placed ready before the high altar.  Henry and Catherine were solemnly anointed and crowned by the Archbishop of Canterbury.

The Party

After the serious solemnity of the ceremony came the party.  An enormous feast was enjoyed by all the guests in Westminster Hall and continued long into the night.  Further celebrations spilled over into the following days and included, dancing, concerts and jousting.  The new king, Henry VIII, had not disappointed.  He had confirmed the guests’ belief that this gregarious Prince knew how to celebrate like a King.

The poet, and former tutor of Henry, John Skelton, produced poetry to be read or sung during the celebrations. Skelton’s writing demonstrated that he believed the new King would always be fair and protect his people. However, the full extent of the joy experienced by the English on this day is beautifully surmised by a letter sent from Lord Mountjoy to the renowned Dutch Scholar, Erasmus: “Heaven and earth rejoices, everything is full of milk and honey and nectar.  Avarice has fled the country.  Our King is not after gold, or gems, or precious metals, but virtue, glory, immortality.”

This was unquestionably the feeling of the King as well as his people, for Henry was already looking towards the legend of King Arthur and the example of his own ancestor (and victor at the battle of Agincourt), Henry V, for his Royal inspiration.

And without doubt Henry’s need for glory and immortality would change England forever.

Julie Wheeler
Read more in Henry VIII’s Wives In An Hour

Anne Boleyn – Her Fall From Favour

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After the loss of another baby in January 1536, Anne Boleyn’s hold over Henry VIII was desperately weakened.  He had his sights on one of her ladies; Jane Seymour.   Whilst the tempestuous nature of Anne Boleyn made her a beguiling and captivating mistress, this very nature did not lend itself to the requirements of a sixteenth-century wife.  Duty, modesty and obedience ranked higher within Jane’s skill range.  She was the very model of calm domesticity, gentle and fully aware of her ‘place’.

The Cruel Plot

Anne was not short of enemies at court.  She had a close ring of male supporters, that included her beloved brother George, but otherwise she was disliked for her ousting of Henry’s first wife, Catherine of Aragon, her religious beliefs and her sharp tongue.  Thomas Cromwell, Henry’s chief minister, who had since replaced Cardinal Wolsey in the King’s favour, also wanted the fiery Queen discredited.  He saw the King’s waning desire and engineered a cruel plot.

Cromwell began to gather evidence to prove that Anne had committed adultery with several men, one of whom was her own brother George Boleyn.  This was High Treason, punishable by death.  On April 30, 1536 the Queen’s musician and friend Mark Seaton was arrested along with George and other male courtiers loyal to Anne.  On May 2, Anne herself was arrested and charged not only with adultery and incest but also for plotting to murder Henry.  Smeaton, under torture, confessed.

On May 12, all the men, with the exception of George, were put on trial; they were not allowed to defend themselves as was customary in cases of treason.  With the exception of Smeaton all pleaded their innocence but were found guilty and sentenced to be hung, drawn and quartered.

The Trial of Anne and George Boleyn

Anne and George were tried on May 15 and allowed to put a defence case together.  But the court believed Anne capable of anything, particularly depravity.  They were shocked at the crime of incest but not surprised that Anne should be accused of it.  Despite significantly weak evidence the charges were taken seriously, particularly in light of the especially damning evidence from George’s wife, Jane Boleyn, who, in her testimony, confirmed the incest. A guilty verdict was passed by Thomas Howard, Duke of Norfolk and Uncle to Anne and George.  The crime befitted a punishment of death either by burning or beheading.

The Execution of Anne Boleyn

On May 17 all the men were executed, having had their sentence reduced from hanging and disembowelling to beheading.  Anne was to meet her fate two days later, May 19th.  She had not been sentenced to burn but an expert French swordsman had been hired from Calais to exact a swift end.  She was led to the scaffold, and made a speech, in which she said, “I pray God save the king and send him long to reign over you, for a gentler nor a more merciful prince was there never: and to me he was ever a good, a gentle and sovereign lord.”

Then, having removed her headdress, she knelt down and one of her ladies tied on her blindfold.  Before she was aware of anything else the swordsman sliced her head off in one smooth, quick sweep.

Anne’s head and body were wrapped in cloth, put in an arrow chest and immediately buried in the nearby Chapel of St Peter ad Vincula, the parish church of the Tower of London. Anne Boleyn was the first English queen to be executed.

Eleven days later Henry married Jane Seymour.

Julie Wheeler
Read more about Henry’s wives in Henry VIII’s Wives In An Hour

Purgatory – the Third Place

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Insuring your salvation from an eternity in Hell was as important to a believer in the sixteenth century (whether king or commoner) as getting a good crop or transporting your wool to market. According to the Roman Catholic Church, there could be no entrance into Heaven without the Church and its exclusive sacraments which purified the soul.

Take, for example, King Henry IV of France who on May 14, 1610, was stopped in his carriage on a street in Paris, and was stabbed in the chest by an assassin monk. His companions, although sure he was already dead, covered his wounds as he was rushed backed to the palace. Laid out on his bed, a priest put his ear to the king’s mouth in order to hear a possible last confession but no sound came from the dead monarch’s mouth. The sacrament of Last Rites could not be performed and one could assume poor King Henry never made it to Heaven.

“The Third Place”: Purgatory

Salvation should have been easy for all sixteenth-century Roman Catholics as long as they received their sacraments. However, as in the case of Henry IV, death might be sudden leaving sins unconfessed. If you died with unconfessed mortal sins (for example, murder, robbery), you certainly wound up in Hell for eternity. God’s judgment upon your death with unconfessed venial (lesser) sins sent you to Purgatory, the “Third Place,” as Martin Luther called it.

Purgatory was not an eternal abode, but a place where your soul spent an unknown period of time, undergoing a purging of venial sins such as theft, lying, or some minor church offense. Such purgation through fire could last anywhere from a day to millions of years, and God never gave clues as to how long a soul would stay in Purgatory. Pictured, An Angel, Freeing the Souls from Purgatory by Ludovico Carracci, c1612.

The existence of Purgatory became carefully defined through the authority of the thirteenth-century Roman Catholic theologians such as Thomas Aquinas. At the Council of Lyons (1439), the Roman Catholic Church decreed Purgatory, and believers saw it as a densely populated place which was nearly impossible to avoid.

We can now see why a real crisis of salvation existed in the early sixteenth century. Christians (and all Christians were Roman Catholics in Western Europe) had to keep careful track of all their sins so that they could give an accurate accounting of them at the confessional. It seemed certain that all Christians were sentenced to Hell or Purgatory while only Church martyrs and saints gained immediate entry into Heaven because of their sinless state. But how long were those who were going to be eventually saved have to stay in Purgatory? What’s notable about all of this is the notion that humans had some sort of control over the length of time they would have to stay there.

“Shortening a Stay in Purgatory”

The Church created the indulgence as a hedge against too long a stay in Purgatory (pictured). Christians could, depending on how much money they paid for these indulgences, shorten their own souls or the souls of their relatives’ duration in Purgatory and hasten entry into Heaven by a year, ten years, several hundred or however much they could afford. However, if the uncertain Christian had not paid enough; the poor soul still might have another several million years to spend in Purgatory or, conversely, he may have overpaid. Proceeds from the purchase of indulgences were used for rebuilding the ancient St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome. It was a win-win solution for the Church and an uncertain one for the buyer of the indulgences.

Edward A Gosselin
Read more in Reformation In An Hour

The Tudors – Loving Relations

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Julie Wheeler considers the politics of marriage within Henry VIII’s reign.

The marital politics of the sixteenth-century were often centred on a policy of retaining familial wealth. Therefore it was not unusual, during this time, to find yourself married to a cousin at the behest of your relatives.  It didn’t stop there, when it came to wealth and sometimes love, any number of connections that today would seem dubious, in the Tudor period, were part of a socially accepted norm.

Henry VIII and his wives provide a snapshot that illuminates this trend.

Henry and Catherine of Aragon

Henry and his first wife Catherine of Aragon shared a common ancestor in John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, and son of the English king Edward III.  Catherine descended from the Duke’s second marriage to Constance of Castile and Henry followed the illegitimate Beaufort line created by his affair with, and subsequent marriage to, Katherine Swynford.

Catherine may have been Henry’s first wife but he wasn’t her first husband. Prior to Henry, Catherine had married his older brother Arthur (pictured) and been left widowed at just 16.  It did not take long for powers still keen on an Anglo-Spanish alliance to float the idea of the widow marrying her brother-in-law.

Henry and Anne Boleyn

When Henry VIII decided to take Anne Boleyn as his second wife, he was already more than familiar with her sister Mary.  During her affair with the King, Mary Boleyn had two children, Catherine in 1524 and Henry in 1526.  The King refused to publicly recognise these as his, but Mary’s Husband, William Carey, was awarded with appointments to stewardships and bestowed with royal annuities for four years running, 1522-1525.

Having enjoyed Mary’s company and ‘shared’ her with Francis I of France, Henry calmly moved on from their intimacy to openly pursue her sister.

As his marriage to Anne Boleyn progressed Henry began to experience disillusionment within the relationship and he took one of her cousins, Madge Shelton, as a mistress.

Henry and Katherine Howard

After the death of Anne Boleyn (and two subsequent wives through death and divorce), Henry had no compunction in marrying within her family.  Fifth wife Katherine Howard, like Anne Boleyn, was part of the powerful Howard dynasty.  Katherine’s father, Edmund Howard, was brother to Anne’s mother, Lady Elizabeth Howard, making them first cousins.

Young Katherine was also no stranger to amorous associations with relatives.  A lover she took before marrying the king, Francis Dereham, was yet another cousin of the Howard family, and Thomas Culpepper, with whom she had a very dangerous liaison, was a distant relation on her mother Jocasta Culpepper’s side.

Although sometimes such relations may have earned the odd frown, justification and exoneration could usually be extracted from the Papacy in Rome in the form of a legal document known as a dispensation in the instance of marriage.  As long as one didn’t marry into an inferior social class, it seems the pursuit of in-laws and cousins presented many opportunities for happiness and the financial or dynastic expansion of the family.

Julie Wheeler.

A Tudor Romance: Mary Tudor and Charles Brandon

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Henry VIII was not the only Tudor prepared to throw contemporary convention aside and marry for love.  His younger sister Mary was equally desperate to forge a romantic marital attachment rather than a diplomatic union.

The King’s Beautiful Sister

The teenage Mary (pictured) was reputed to be a great beauty and a vivacious member of Henry’s court.  He was incredibly fond of her and allowed her to attend parties and enjoy dancing and dressing up.  With their father dead, Mary was an indispensable asset to Henry offering fantastic, marriageable potential.  Having complete control of her dowry, Henry was therefore in complete control over who could place a ring on Mary’s finger.

In 1514 Henry made his decision.  His beautiful, eligible sister should forge an alliance with France; young Mary would marry 52-year-old King Louis XII of France.  Peace between France and England would be secure.  The spirited socialite was distraught; her suitor was known to be sickly, gouty and ‘pocky’.  Her real distress however was due to a growing attachment and developing love for the dynastically challenged Charles Brandon.

Rising to Nobility

Charles (pictured), although not originally of noble birth, was part of a family who had shown tremendous loyalty to the Tudor dynasty.  His father, William Brandon, died at the Battle of Bosworth flying the flag for Henry’s father, Henry VII.  His uncle, Thomas Brandon, had forged a successful career as a courtier to Henry VII.  Henry and Charles had grown up together and always enjoyed a warm friendship.  Charles was so beloved of Henry that the king persistently raised him through various promotions once he took the throne finally peaking, in 1514, with the title of Duke of Suffolk.

Promises and the Madness of Solitude

Accounts reveal that Mary drove a bargain with her brother; she would agree to diplomatic matrimony if Henry would promise her a free choice on her next husband, should this one die.  Henry agreed.  Louis’ age and health must now have become a source of optimism and hope for Mary.  She set sail from Dover in October to become Queen of France.  Her marriage to King Louis lasted a mere eighty-two days; he died on New Year’s Eve.  Mary had an exciting 1515 to look forward to.

Frustratingly, due to strict French tradition, Mary found herself forced to endure forty days seclusion. The idea was to impose a period of mourning, the solitude also ensured, should a widow find herself pregnant that no doubt could arise regarding the paternity of the child.  Cut off from society behind thick, black drapes it seems she began to panic that Henry may have forgotten his promise and be planning another political union for her.  Mary wrote to her brother begging he honour his word.

Charles’ mission

There is no record of any particular intention on Henry’s part with regard to his sister at this point.  He sent Charles Brandon to both collect Mary and conclude her affairs in France.  At this juncture Henry insisted upon Charles’s promise that relations between himself and Mary were kept strictly professional whilst abroad.  Henry trusted Charles implicitly.  Arguably, Henry may well have blessed the couple’s union provided Charles lived up to the monumental task of securing Mary’s jewels and dower rights from the new French king, Francis I. Charles’ task seemed, on the face of it, simple.

It was to prove anything but.

Charles Brandon found himself in France to collect Mary Tudor, Henry VIII’s sister, the woman he loved, but with strict instruction from the king that his conduct should be professional.

Unfortunately, as soon as Charles met with Mary, all practical thoughts of financial negotiation were driven from his mind by her unleashing all the stress she had built up during her seclusion.  She wept and pleaded with him to marry her immediately; convinced that on her return to England another unhappy alliance awaited her.  She insisted they seize their opportunity as, she feared, it may not present itself again.  She reminded him they had nothing to fear due to Henry’s original promise.

Charles tried to honour his agreement to King Henry and avoid such action, but through her tears Mary presented Charles with an ultimatum; now or never.  They were married in France sometime in February 1515.

“The Greatest Danger That Ever Man Was In”

Charles faced the inevitable in early March when he wrote to Thomas Wolsey to reveal his disloyalty.  Thomas Wolsey, then the Archbishop of York and good friend to Charles Brandon, was also one of Henry’s most trusted and respected advisors.  Charles told Wolsey of Mary’s distress and tenacious persuasion.  He admitted they were married, had slept together and even confessed the possibility she was pregnant.  He begged for help in breaking the news to the king and told of his fear of being cast from royal favour, his life and his livelihood depended on a successful resolution with Henry.

Wolsey’s response arrived after what must have been an agonizing fortnight.  It contained news of the king’s anger and shock, he clearly felt incredibly betrayed.  He had, reported Wolsey, refused to believe such wilful defiance had occurred until he had actually read Charles’ correspondence himself.  Wolsey advised Charles he was now, ‘in the greatest danger that ever man was in’.

The Cost of the King’s Mercy

Mary and Charles began to beg forgiveness in earnest.  Charles professed he would rather face execution than live with the knowledge Henry could not truly forgive him and Mary tried desperately to shoulder the blame completely.  She told how she had forced the situation, forced Charles to break his word to Henry.

Forgiveness did not come immediately.  Wolsey continued to mediate between his friend and his beloved king.  Eventually he was able to reveal that the king’s fury had finally subsided and a deal was struck.  The couple were able to buy their clemency.  Provided they return the cost of Mary’s first marriage, her dowry, jewels and travel expenses and Charles relinquished the lucrative wardship of Elizabeth Grey; they may return to England and receive exoneration.

It was May before they could safely return to the English court, and on the 13ththey enjoyed a lavish marriage ceremony with Henry’s full blessing.

A Happy Ending

A happy ending was achieved.  The Duke of Suffolk had always been popular and genial therefore possible jealousies amongst courtiers were negated, the king kept his public dignity by receiving a return financially and not proving a walkover (no matter how favoured a friend and a sister may be) and Mary realised her dream. In May 1515, for just a moment, everyone in the Tudor court was happy.

Julie Wheeler
See Julie’s Henry VIII’s Wives In An Hour

Anne of Cleves – The Luckiest Queen?

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Julie Wheeler summarises Anne of Cleves’ marriage to Henry VIII and the subsequent divorce and asks why Anne survived where others were not so fortunate.

Two of Henry VIII’s wives, Anne Boleyn and Katherine Howard, ended their lives on the executioner’s block as traitors.  Another, Catherine of Aragon, had been humiliated by him before all the courts of Europe.  It is surprising then, that a young woman from the Rhineland who barely spoke English, survived Henry and the machinations of the English court.  Anne of Cleves managed to marry him and escape his tyranny with her life and her dignity in tact.

Henry VIII married chiefly for romance and with the hope that true-love and God’s will would produce a plethora of healthy male heirs.  It was uncommon during the sixteenth-century for the nobility to opt for romance; marriage was usually a political or status-driven manoeuvre.  With wife number three, Jane Seymour, dead after producing Henry’s much longed for son, his chief advisor Thomas Cromwell decided that in the future foreign policy should triumph over love in the pursuit of a new queen.

Romance, Religion and Politics

Cromwell had his reasons.  How could Henry fall in love after the sad loss of the woman who gave him a legitimate son?  It would seem Henry could only fall in love when the object of his desire was the antithesis of his current spouse.  The devout, Catholic Catherine of Aragon had been superseded by the Protestant, fiery and cultured Anne Boleyn.  She in turn became despised in favour of the gentle, Catholic home-maker Jane Seymour.  Each new love would find events driven by a passionate single minded energy. Henry’s pursuit of Anne Boleyn added dramatic momentum to the English Reformation which slowed down during his marriage to Jane.

Such tumultuous arrangements must have left the ardent Protestant Cromwell with the impression that the future success of the English Reformation lie in the religious affiliation of England’s queen.  Thomas Cromwell would also have been very aware of the rather alarming news in June 1538 that Spain and France had united as allies, signing a ten year truce.  Overseen by Pope Paul III, it demonstrated a show of Catholic solidarity.  England was left somewhat alone and friendless in the context of European diplomacy.  Thomas Cromwell saw the opportunity of a Protestant, European alliance when the sister of William, Duke of Cleves (an enemy of Spain) became available for marriage.

Henry Falls In Love With a Painting

As 1538 turned into 1539, Thomas Cromwell began his skilful manipulation that would eventually seal the Cleves deal.  As summer turned to autumn, Cromwell and his allies convinced the king that Anne of Cleves was perfect.  Henry fell in love with the idea.  In September 1539 Henry saw a portrait of Anne produced by his trusted royal painter Hans Holbein (pictured) and, besotted, quickly disregarded concerns that Anne was already locked into a pre-existing betrothal to the son of the Duke of Lorraine. Anne of Cleves finally arrived in England in late December and met Henry for the first time on New Years’ Day.

The king was more than ready to turn this political tango into a romantic waltz.  Unfortunately a disastrous first encounter led to a distinct, and lasting, lack of synchronicity between the Henry and Anne.  King Henry and some revellers had entered Anne’s chamber in heavy disguise.  They found her watching a bullfight through the window.  One of the group stepped forward, kissed her and proffered a gift, informing her it was from the king.  Anne’s contemporary modesty dictated a ‘thank you’ and a shy resuming of her view of events through the window.  He tried to continue his amorous advance, only to be rejected with persistent, decorous modesty.

Anne’s Immense Failure

The advancing, disguised man was Henry.  Anne’s inability to use the ‘second sight’ of true-love in order to see through his disguise was an immense failure.  His pride and his belief in romance was irrevocably damaged where Anne was concerned.  It also symbolised the cultural gap that would remain between them during their marriage.  Henry, humiliated by the encounter, found himself almost disgusted by Anne’s appearance.

Despite attempts by his council to free him from the contracted betrothal he found himself trapped.  Immediate talks were resumed on the issue of the previous contract between Anne and the Duke of Lorraine in a bid to prevent the marriage.  The weight of proof behind this was simply not enough.  Europe was watching; contemporary laws and expectations meant Henry could not rescind.  The last thing England needed was Cleves becoming another enemy in Europe thus on the 6th January 1540, Henry VIII married Anne of Cleves.

Reluctantly, Henry VIII had married Anne of Cleves on the 6th January 1540. Initially Henry went through the motions, supplying Anne with a household befitting her new status and the court seemed happy.  Behind closed drapes however, the union remained unconsummated.  Henry wasn’t attracted to Anne; no doubt the feeling was mutual given Henry’s aging and obese condition.

Naive or Shrewd?

It starts to become unclear at this point whether Anne was naive or shrewd in her dealings with Henry.  Her apparent naivety was highlighted by a conversation between herself and one of her ladies, the widowed Lady Rochford.  It appeared Anne was under the impression that since the King had laid and slept beside her, she was no longer a virgin.  Could Anne truly have been so unworldly?  Such ignorance was rare but not impossible.  Anne’s overbearingly devout mother may have left her unprepared.  Perhaps she was shrewd enough to save the King’s public pride on this matter.

Anne reveals there was more to her than naivety and docility as she became more aware of the workings of the English court and as her English language skills improved.  She and Henry discussed marriage options for his eldest daughter Mary.  Henry later complained to Cromwell that Anne’s opinions in this matter showed her to be ‘stubborn and wilful’.  In other words, she possessed a resolute opinion.

An Uncertain Future

Anne anticipated a coronation around Whitsuntide.  Henry however had a new plan; he was in love again, this time with Anne Boleyn’s much younger cousin, Katherine Howard.  With Henry’s passion and determination stirred once more, Anne’s marriage was in jeopardy and so, arguably, her life.  It looked incredibly unlikely she would wear a crown.  Henry and his councillors squared their shoulders ready to battle for divorce and freedom yet again.

The result was rather different to his previous partings, it was resolved with speed.  Officials once more looked to Anne’s pre-contract with the Duke of Lorraine; fussing over technicalities with the wording and the issue of non-consummation.  On the pretext of her avoiding plague Anne was asked to leave court and reside at Richmond Palace.  She was well aware this move replicated events regarding the removal of Catherine of Aragon.

Her suspicions were confirmed when the King sent word to her that he believed their marriage invalid.  Some reports claim Anne was initially distressed at the news.  This distress was most likely borne out of fear.  She must have been afraid just how far Henry would go to be rid of her.  Where would she go?  Back to Cleves to a brother she feared would ‘slay her’ and a crushing maternal presence, amidst a humiliating debacle of a marriage?  Her whole future hung on the uncertainty of a tyrant’s whim.

Reality struck and Anne quickly regained her shrewd composure.  By the time Henry demanded written consent to his divorce proposal she took the courageous decision to consent only verbally.  Having signed nothing it bought her time to plan and consider his subsequent offer.  The verbal message was clearly to Henry’s liking and her submissively worded answer encouraged his generosity.

The settlement offered would give her a higher status than all other ladies in England, excluding the new queen, several estates and a very comfortable annual allowance of approximately £4,000.  She would be known as the ‘King’s Sister’.  All this for an uncomplicated exit from the marriage and, he stipulated, she remain in England.  Henry wished to avoid potential anger amongst foreign courts if she were to return to Cleves and incite trouble.

Anne was quick to evaluate the pros and cons and offer her acceptance, even asking if she may still enjoy Henry’s company at court occasionally.  Anne survived and remained wealthy, settled and single for the rest of her life.  She enjoyed a luxurious freedom seldom experienced by her female contemporaries and outlived all of Henry’s wives.

Henry Never at Fault

Henry, as always, needed to punish someone to truly settle the matter.  No blame should ever be apportioned to him.  Anne’s easy, friendly submission left only the orchestrator of the Cleves affair available.  The high-flying star of Thomas Cromwell was to fall.  His destruction closely mirrored that of Henry’s other wives.  He had been favoured and bestowed accordingly and then thrown down with charges of treason.  He was beheaded shortly after Henry’s marriage to Anne was dissolved.

A couple cannot passionately hate if they never passionately loved, so Anne of Cleves kept her head.  Knowing she could not win she had been skilfully quick to succumb.  Henry did not feel bitter, vengeful or let down because he had no love or expectations of her.  Anne had revealed a lack of naivety and yet played the part of a docile and accepting former wife with easy skill.  Her desire to be independent of Cleves had also propelled her decision.

She clearly wasn’t unintelligent and must have realised that Henry’s desire for Katherine would make a hasty agreement favourable to her.  Anne was quick to learn the English language and customs, so it is fair to assume she quickly learnt how to manage Henry’s inflated pride.

Anne’s perceptive interpretation of events and surroundings was coupled with luck.  She was lucky to have had previous examples not to follow, and fortunate have Thomas Cromwell take her place in Henry’s apportion of blame and, ultimately, on the executioner’s block.  Anne Boleyn’s motto had been, ‘The Most Happy’, Anne of Cleves should certainly have read, ‘The Most Lucky’.

Julie Wheeler
Read more in Henry VIII’s Wives In An Hour